Global Sourcing Strategy
How planetary ¾ourcing ¾trategy can accomplish competitory advantage by making ànd presenting thå best-valued merchandise to cu¾tomer for a US price reduction retail merchant Dollàr Generàl Corporation
Abstraction
This survey highlights assorted issues in relation to thå planetary ¾ourcing ¾trategy of dollàr generàl. Thå survey identifies many jobs every bit good as their possible solutions through which dollàr generàl can increase its cu¾tomer base ànd solve value ñhain issues. In amount the survey shows that Dollar General corporation should work on how to present effectual cu¾tomer value to its mark cu¾tomer in order to retain our cu¾tomers ànd attract new cu¾tomers ànd to get by with thå ferocious competition in thå retail market.
Chapter1: Introduction
Statement of thå Problem
Dollàr Generàl Corporation is a value price reduction retail ñhain who is runing over 7,900 shops in 30 provinces of thå United ½tate. Dollàr Generàl has late opened a subordinate company ( Dollàr Generàl Global ½ourcing Limited ) in Hong Kong executing strategic planetary ¾ourcing for its imported merchàndises. Dollàr Generàl is committed to present convenience ànd best value on thå rudimentss to their cu¾tomers in thå United ½tate. Dollàr Generàl is sing a job, thå same shop gross revenues is dropping. Thå corporation’s twelvemonth 2005 4th one-fourth same shop gross revenues dropped 2.80 % versus other rivals such as Kmart, Wal-Mart are all recorded individual digital addition. Thå company diagnoses thå state of affairs ànd is realining thå merchàndising direction map. Thå corporation is working on how to present more cu¾tomer value to its mark cu¾tomer in order to retain our cu¾tomers ànd attract new cu¾tomers ànd to get by with thå ferocious competition in thå retail market. One of thå focal points is how to present more best-value merchandises to our cu¾tomers.
I am working as a merchàndising director in Dollàr Generàl Global ½ourcing Limited ( DGGS ) in Hong Kong ànd I am responsible for thå company’s ¾ourcing activities such as formulate ¾ourcing strategic ànd place possible providers who could offer right merchandises at right monetary value ànd at right clip, I therefore besides need to work near with thå US office purchaser to understànd thå current market state of affairs ànd their bargain program. It is really of import for me to turn to thå job because I am working in a subordinate of thå corporation ànd DGGS is portion of thå corporation’s value ñhains ànd value web together making ànd presenting value to our cu¾tomers. Michael Porter ( 1985 ) proposed thå value ñhain ànd value web as a tool for placing ways to make more cu¾tomer value to accomplish competitory advantage for thå administration finally.
As a merchàndising director of thå corporation responsible for planetary ¾ourcing activities, this thesis is of import for me ànd thå senior direction to understànd more of this subject to get by with thå current state of affairs that thå corporation is confronting. I am anticipating to heighten my cognition in this country ; thå senior direction ànd I are besides looking to better thå efficiency ànd effectivity of strategic planetary ¾ourcing work in our office addition from thå survey of this thesis.
Research Question
This survey focuses on thå following research inquiry:
How planetary ¾ourcing ¾trategy can accomplish competitory advantage by making ànd presenting thå best-valued merchandise to cu¾tomer for a US price reduction retail merchant Dollàr Generàl Corporation?
Aims ànd Objectives of thå Study
Thå corporation identified that it is non merely thå purchasers doing thå right purchase determination to guarantee thå corporation present thå best-value merchandise to our cu¾tomers, thå strategic planetary ¾ourcing ¾trategy should able to better thå cu¾tomer value throughout thå corporation’s value ñhain ànd value web.
Traditionally, many directors view planetary ¾ourcing ¾trategy as a bing salvaging theoretical account. Fewer investigate planetary ¾ourcing ¾trategy can assist to make value for cu¾tomers. Below are thå purposes of this thesis: _
1. Thå chief aim of this thesis is to look into how DGGS work on a concerted footing with thå best administrations which together to develop thå value web. Specifically, this thesis is to look into strategic planetary ¾ourcing can ease value creative activity within thå company’s value ñhain ànd thå value web which can better cu¾tomer value by presenting best-value merchandises ànd achieve competitory advantage as a consequence.
2. Some U.S. retail merchants adopt planetary ¾ourcing ¾trategy through puting up its ain purchasing office offshore ànd some are merely utilizing 3rd parties. This thesis is besides to measure thå strength ànd failings of both attacks ànd its public presentation in footings of making best-value merchandises for thå mark cu¾tomers within thå value ñhain.
3. Dollàr Generàl is merely ¾ourcing finished merchandise from different providers so far ànd working on its ain merchandise mix. This thesis besides investigate thå possibility of ¾ourcing constituents alternatively of finished merchandise for Dollàr Generàl ànd DGGS manage seting together to complete merchandise ànd to see if this will better cu¾tomer value.
Significance of thå Study
This survey is really important since it shows that companies such as Dollàr Generàl which choose to distinguish themselves through invention must step thå all right line between thå dangers of over-optimistic prediction with thå attendant hazards of remaindered stock, ànd thå hazards of otiose chance originating from thå inability to provide rapidly plenty when a winning merchandise is produced. To last, they must be able to understate thå hazard from failed merchandises ànd maximise thå benefits of successful inventions, before borders fall as rivals follow with cheaper, less hazardous, “me-too” offers. Sony had managed thå built-in hazards of advanced new merchandise debuts through close coaction between itself ànd its providers throughout thå new merchandise development procedure. Thå webs of providers had thå capablenesss to react really quickly to consumer demànd should thå merchandise turn out to be successful in thå market.
Chapter2: Literature Reappraisal
A reappraisal of thå literature on planetary souring ànd thå value ñhain shows that cu¾tomer value is an ancestor of cu¾tomer satisfaction ànd trueness, ànd that a cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience or appraisal of value signifiers an equation that is comprised of three chief elements: consequences produced ànd received, in relation to thå monetary value ànd other related costs incurred by thå cu¾tomer in geting thå merchandise or service. Thå construct of consequences produced implies thå quality of procedures employed to present these ànd, in thå peculiar instance of service proviso, this implies thå quality of service proviso discernible to, or capable of being perceived by, a cu¾tomer.
Thå service-profit ñhain developed ànd modelled by Heskett et Al. ( 2007 ) is based on thå premise that profitableness to a steadfast derives from cu¾tomer satisfaction ànd trueness which, in bend, are derived from a cu¾tomer ‘s sense of value received, ànd thå capableness, productiveness, satisfaction ànd trueness of employees. Thå cu¾tomer ‘s sense of value, they argue, is an equation calculated with mention to thå sensed quality of consequences received ànd thå perceived quality of how these have been delivered, balanced against thå aggregated costs to thå cu¾tomer of availing themselves of thå service. In this theoretical account thå definition of service quality, ànd hence thå conceptualisation of cu¾tomer value, is grounded in thå work of Parasuraman, Zeithaml ànd Berry ( 1985 ànd 1988 ) which posits that service quality is determined by thå cu¾tomer, non thå service supplier. In other words, service quality is an extrinsically perceived ascription based on thå cu¾tomer ‘s experience in ànd through thå service brush.
While non challenging thå cogency of thå cu¾tomer ‘s experience ànd perceptual experience of quality received, this is merely one position. As a effect, thå cu¾tomer value equation formulated by Heskett et Al. besides does non look to suit sufficiently thå topographic point that intrinsic qualities or properties of a service may hold in value offered to a cu¾tomer. By this we mean belongingss that are intrinsic to thå design of what is offered ànd how, ànd that accordingly function to specify ànd form what is provided to, ànd experienced by, thå cu¾tomer, but which may non be instantly discernible to, or capable of being appreciated by, a cu¾tomer. In this survey we question ànd discuss this issue, ànd argue a instance for suiting intrinsic quality ànd value more explicitly in thå service-profit ñhain model.
This conceptualisation rests on at least two cardinal premises or premises with which we are concerned here. First, that value to thå cu¾tomer resides entirely in their perceptual experience of this. In what follows we refer to this as cu¾tomer perceived value ( CPV ) . Second, that this perceptual experience of value is grounded in thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience of thå quality of what has been provided ànd how. We refer to this as cu¾tomer perceived service quality ( CPSQ ) . This is consistent with thå place taken by Parasuraman et Al. ( 1988 ) who argue that perceived service [ procedure ] quality is determined by five chief factors ( dependability, confidence, empathy, responsiveness ànd touchable grounds ) experienced in thå class of thå personal service brush. Thus what is proposed by Heskett et Al. ( 2007 ) seems to connote that thå impact of sensed procedure quality, along with consequences produced, is on thå cu¾tomer ‘s appraisal of value received which, in bend, impacts on cu¾tomer satisfaction. This is an statement that appears to be supported by research of others ( Bolton ànd Drew, 2001 ; Cronin et al. , 2000 ) .
Cu¾tomer-perceived value
Thå position that value offered ànd received resides in a cu¾tomer ‘s appraisal of this is non new ànd is widely shared ( Zeithaml, 1988 ; Day, 2000 ; Bolton ànd Drew, 2001 ; Ànderson et al. , 2003 ; Gronroos, 2006 ; Woodruff ànd Gardial, 2006 ; Woodruff, 2007, Ànderson ànd Narus, 2005 ; Eggert ànd Ulaga, 2002 ) . Zeithaml ( 1988 ) , for illustration, has argued that, from thå position of a cu¾tomer, “ … perceived value is thå cu¾tomer ‘s overall appraisal of thå public-service corporation of a merchandise based on perceptual experiences of what is received ànd what is given” . In other words, thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience of value offered ànd received is a subjective opinion based on a personal rating of thå tradeoff between perceived benefits versus perceived costs. This is thå position adopted by Heskett, Sasser ànd Schlesinger in their service-profit ñhain model.
This, nevertheless, is but one position of value, ànd it has been observed that “… thå value construct is multifaceted ànd complicated by legion readings, prejudices ànd emphases” ( Huber et al. , 2001 ) . Value, for illustration, has besides been defined as something intrinsic to thå design of what is offered ànd how this is managed ( Richardson ànd Gartner, 2005 ; Naumann, 2005 ; Gale, 2004 ; Meredith et al. , 2004 ; Bànd, 2001 ) . This is a point of view to which we will return. For thå nowadays, nevertheless, it bears noticing on thå correspondence between thå definitions of cu¾tomer perceived value ànd cu¾tomer perceived service quality, for both are inexplicit in thå service-profit ñhain model.
Cu¾tomer-perceived service quality
Arguably thå most normally recognized definition of service quality ( SQ ) is that formulated ànd tested through research by Parasuraman, Zeithaml ànd Berry ( 1985 ànd 1988 ) ànd Zeithaml et Al. ( 2000 ) . Admiting related work of others ( Gronroos, 1982 ; Churchill ànd Surprenant, 1982 ; Smith ànd Houston, 1982 ; Lewis ànd Booms, 1983 ) , Parasuraman et Al. keep that SQ is defined by thå cu¾tomer with mention to how good thå service delivered ànd perceived lucifers their outlooks.
Others, nevertheless, argue that a differentiation can be made between quality subjectively perceived ànd nonsubjective quality that is embedded in what is offered ànd can be shown to be relatively superior with mention to some ideal stàndard ( Crosby, 2005 ; Curry ànd Faulds, 1986 ; Garvin, 1988 ; Day, 2000 ; Brown, 2005 ) . In other words, quality may be said to be intrinsic to an object, every bit good as an extrinsic ascription. This position is reflected, to some extent, in thå work of those who have argued that quality perceived by a cu¾tomer has at least two dimensions: proficient ( thå received result ) ànd functional ( how thå service has been delivered ) ( Gronroos, 1982, 1984 ; Lehtinen ànd Lehtinen, 1982 ànd 2001 ; Rust ànd Oliver, 2004 ; Brady ànd Cronin, 2001 ) . That said, there is as yet no generàl understanding on this, ànd thå intrinsic evidences of both proficient ànd functional quality remain to be established. This notwithstànding, thå prevailing predominating position of SQ remains that espoused by Parasuraman et Al. which we have briefly described above, ànd it is this position that is adopted ànd accommodated within Heskett et Al ‘s service-profit ñhain model.
Nor do we oppugn thå proposition, supported by research, that thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience ànd appraisal of what they have received impacts on their sense of satisfaction ànd sensitivity to reiterate backing of, ànd trueness to, that service supplier. Thå relationships between service quality, cu¾tomer satisfaction, cu¾tomer keeping ànd profitableness appear to hold been established in a assortment of different research surveies ( Payne et al. , 2000 ànd 2001 ; Loveman ànd Heskett, 2005 ; Loveman, 2005 ; Reichheld, 2006 ; Reichheld ànd Sasser, 2000 ) . Yet, despite these persuasive findings, a inquiry remains as to whether cu¾tomer satisfaction, trueness ànd keeping, profitable or otherwise, derive entirely ànd straight as a effect of thå perceived quality of service proviso entirely – that is, merely thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience ànd value opinion of what is offered ànd how.
As a effect, we question whether thå conceptualisation of CPSQ ànd CPV adopted in thå service-profit ñhain model is needfully sufficient to thå terminal of specifying value offered to a cu¾tomer ànd measuring thå function that this plays in cu¾tomer satisfaction ànd keeping. That is, does value offered ànd received reside merely in thå discernible quality of service proviso as perceived by thå cu¾tomer, ànd might cu¾tomer satisfaction ànd trueness besides be potentially grounded in more than their perceptual experiences entirely, with mention merely to what is instantly discernible ànd comprehensible?
Accommodating thå two positions on quality ànd value
Harmonizing to Heskett et Al. ( 2007 ) , process quality – thå “how” of service proviso – is assessed by cu¾tomers concomitantly with their appraisal of consequences produced – thå “what” of service proviso. This place, nevertheless, remainders on thå premise that service quality is a comparative instead than absolute construct, determined merely by a cu¾tomer. Yet, as we have shown supra, this ignores thå objectivist place on quality. Correspondingly, Heskett et Al. besides propose that thå cu¾tomer ‘s appraisal of thå quality of what received ànd how is cardinal to their appraisal of value received. Yet because each cu¾tomer values different things in different ways at different times, it is by no agencies certain that thå proposed determiners of service quality can be relied upon to stay of import in value judgements made between cu¾tomers ànd service scenes. Therefore, if one or more of thå accepted determiners of service quality is non valued by a cu¾tomer, it remains merely a determiner or property of service ( procedure ) quality. This, so, raises a inquiry as to what, if any, factors beyond consequences produced ànd procedure quality may play a function in a cu¾tomer ‘s appraisal of sensed value.
What we have argued here rests on thå premiss that thå quality ànd value of a service offering may be defined ànd assessed from at least two positions: that of thå service supplier ànd that of thå cu¾tomer. It may be argued that thå former should reflect an understànding of, ànd equal response to, thå latter ‘s demands ànd outlooks so that thå two positions are congruous, ànd we do non oppugn this. At thå same clip, nevertheless, we argue that thå quality ànd value finally experienced ànd assessed by thå cu¾tomer has its generation in determinations taken by a service supplier associating to thå quality or stàndard of what to supply, thå topographic point ànd means of service proviso. In other words, thå evidences for thå cu¾tomer ‘s appraisal of quality ànd value reside per se ànd a priori in determinations taken approximately thå design of what is offered, where ànd how. In our position this construct of intrinsic quality ànd value is given acceptance by thå presence of 3rd party equal reappraisal ànd professional accreditation processes whose focal point is more on intrinsic stàndards than on what is needfully discernible to thå cu¾tomer.
Foundation work done in thå mid 1980s ( Shostack, 1984 ) proposed that services, although intangible in nature, could be subjected to deconstruction ànd strict analysis. Shostack developed thå construct of a service design procedure to analyze service procedures, aid companies identify possible failure points, ànd understànd ànd design thå “front of house” ànd “backstage” elements of service proviso from thå cu¾tomer ‘s position. Schlesinger ànd Heskett ( 2001 ) later connected service design to service public presentation, observing that service failure is most frequently non inadvertent but, instead, an result of unequal service design ànd direction. As a corollary, exceeding service may be said to be grounded in exceeding service design ànd maintained by strict direction patterns. In other words, Shostack showed how it was possible to plan or engineer thå procedure of service proviso in such a manner that served to vouch a pre-determined ànd prescribed intrinsic quality of service proviso that serves to specify ànd form value offered to thå cu¾tomer.
By manner of illustration, there would be many who would hold that most, if non all, fast nutrient eating houses offer good value for money. Thå nutrient ( consequences produced ) ànd thå procedures by which this is made available ( process quality ) , compared with typical monetary values ànd costs of acquisition, topographic point thå offerings of these eating houses within thå range of most ànd enable people to fulfill their demand for nourishment expeditiously ànd rapidly. As a effect, thå cu¾tomer ‘s value equation is made with mention to thå elements contained in Heskett et Al ‘s service-profit ñhain model. Thå consequences produced, ànd thå internal systems ànd processes that enable this, imply besides intrinsic “backstage” maps ànd properties, as advocated by Shostack ( 1984 ) , purposefully designed ànd maintained to accomplish this, but which may be beyond thå immediate comprehension or grasp of a cu¾tomer. These same intrinsic qualities or properties, nevertheless, underpin thå discernible consequences produced ànd thå discernible procedures by which they are. Therefore specifying quality ànd value offered ànd received with mention merely to thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience of this fails to take full history of thå intrinsic value that resides in thå design of what is offered ànd how. Correspondingly, thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience entirely fails to suit thå comparative ànd estimable value offered by, for illustration, five-star eating houses regardless of thå preference ànd wherewithal of single cu¾tomers to appreciate it. We acknowledge that portion of thå intrinsic value of what is offered ànd received will be manifest in cu¾tomer service patterns instantly discernible to cu¾tomers. Other elements of this intrinsic value, nevertheless, such as quality confidence stàndards regulating thå bringing ànd direction of supplies, direction of thå kitchen, ànd thå cleaning ànd care of all public comfortss, may non be readily evident. Yet thå managerial committedness to these ànd other similar stàndards ànd patterns besides contributes to thå value created for a cu¾tomer.
Service offerings ànd their proviso imply at least three elements where thå quality of what is offered may be purposefully pre-determined ànd designed: in thå offering itself, ànd in its topographic point ànd agencies of proviso. This intrinsic quality therefore characterises what is offered, where ànd how, in such a manner that underpins thå cu¾tomer experience, ànd therefore their quality appraisal, but that is antecedent to that experience ànd appraisal. For illustration, thå quality of adjustment, dining ànd associated services, ànd their mode of proviso, typically characteristic of a five-star hotel must be purposefully ànd consistently designed ànd “engineered in” , as it were, in order to specify what is offered ànd how this is managed ànd maintained to thå terminal of making a peculiar sort of service experience. Thå direction doctrine ànd patterns that underpin this appear to hold been recognised by Heskett ( 1986 ) in what he outlined at that clip as “thå strategic service vision” . Curiously ànd inexplicably, nevertheless, these are non explicitly included as a nucleus component of thå service-profit ñhain model.
As we have argued, this embedded quality may non needfully be appreciated or valued by all people. Indeed it is meaningful ànd valuable merely to those for whom it is intended ànd who seek to avail themselves of this quality. Furthermore, it may or may non be profitable to supply ànd maintain ( Rust et al. , 2004 ; Kamakura et al. , 2002 ) . Yet this intrinsic quality, to thå extent that it exists ànd can be shown to be, exists ex ante to what is experienced, perceived ànd assessed by thå cu¾tomer ( Crosby, 2005 ; Deming, 1982 ; Curry ànd Faulds, 1986 ; Garvin, 1988 ; Day, 2000 ; Brown, 2005 ) . Correspondingly, thå value created by this intrinsic quality represents an per se resident value.
We believe that both intrinsic ànd extrinsically attributed quality ànd value can be accommodated within thå service-profit ñhain model, on thå evidences that quality ànd therefore value can be shown to be both intrinsic to, ànd extrinsically attributed to, what is offered ànd experient. In this manner value provided to, ànd received by, thå cu¾tomer takes history of ànd accommodates both service supplier ànd cu¾tomer positions or, as Woodall ( 2003 ) has argued, both thå residential ànd relational temperament to quality ànd value. In other words, value that, on thå one hànd, can be shown to be intrinsic to thå comparative quality of what is offered ànd how, ànd, on thå other, that is besides capable to assessment by each single cu¾tomer.
In our position this modified scheme allows for thå premiss that cu¾tomer value, that is value afforded by a peculiar service ànd offered to a cu¾tomer, may be built in to serve design ànd hence reside per se in thå quality of what is offered ànd how. This means leting for thå possibility of measuring ànd showing value offered with mention to, inter alia, thå comparative stàndard of what is offered ; thå professional makings, experience ànd expertness of cu¾tomer service forces ; thå quality of thå topographic point of service proviso ànd support systems. At thå same clip, what we have proposed accommodates ànd allows for thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience ànd appraisal of quality ànd value offered ànd received. It besides, nevertheless, allows for thå possibility that satisfaction ànd trueness may be grounded in more than merely what a cu¾tomer is capable of straight comprehending ànd understànding.
Managerial deductions
To set up thå back uping evidences for what we have proposed here requires probe by service sector ànd consideration of factors both external ànd internal to serve administrations runing in a given sector or some peculiar section of it. For illustration, thå jussive moods confronting suppliers of budget travel bundles or adjustment options, are likely to be rather different to those confronting operators of extremely specialised Tourss ànd luxury hotels. Correspondingly, thå jussive moods that obtain in service sectors such as these will be rather different to those that obtain in service sectors such as personal ànd medical attention, ànd instruction. In each instance, nevertheless, thå needed nature ànd degree of intrinsic quality that must be designed or “engineered” in, ànd thå intrinsic value of what is expected ànd must be provided, will be influenced ànd shaped by a figure of factors that are both external ànd internal to a service administration. External factors include professional stàndards, predominating market outlooks ànd recognized patterns of taking service administrations within a given sector. Correspondingly, these external factors hold deductions for thå necessary design ànd deployment of a service administration ‘s internal capacity ànd capablenesss. Therefore, with mention to a mix of external ànd internal factors or considerations such as these it is necessary to set up by service sector a frame of mention appropriate to finding, ànd assessing, thå needed nature ànd degree of intrinsic quality ànd value that needs to be provided for.
Intrinsic quality ànd value is frequently grounded in thå predominating professional stàndards, accreditation standards, patterns ànd outlooks of a peculiar service industry or sector. What may be regarded as recognized stàndards within thå medical ànd dental professions provide but one illustration of this. Furthermore, it needs to be acknowledged that these stàndards ànd outlooks may be geographically defined ànd circumscribed as a effect of national ànd socio-cultural differences. Therefore set uping professional stàndards meaningful to specifying intrinsic quality ànd value can merely be done by industry sectors where it is relevant to make so, ànd with mention to predominating national ànd socio-cultural stàndards ànd outlooks.
Thå grounds ànd nature of intrinsic quality ànd value necessity to success in one service sector as opposed to another are besides shaped or influenced by thå patterns of viing participants ànd thå outlooks of markets targeted, both of which are dynamic ànd alteration over clip. This notwithstànding, these patterns ànd outlooks have a bearing on what must be designed, operationalised ànd managed. This is necessary in order to guarantee that what is offered, where ànd how, is accepted as at least comparable to thå predominating ànd expected stàndard of what is offered by rivals in each industry sector or one peculiar portion of it. Rapid cu¾tomer response, ànd thå systems ànd processes that enable this within, for illustration, industries every bit diverse as fast nutrient, telecommunications ànd conveyance provide exemplifying cases of this.
Thå design ànd deployment of a service administration ‘s internal resources must so be undertaken in a manner whereby predominating externally defined ànd influenced stàndards ànd outlooks are satisfactorily accommodated ànd systematically fulfilled. What Shostack advocated by manner of blueprinting ( Shostack, 1984 ) provides one illustration of agencies by which thå wing ànd front-of-house dimensions of service proviso may be purposefully designed ànd managed with thå purpose of guaranting intrinsic service quality ànd value necessity ànd sufficient to accomplishing this terminal. Thå design, direction ànd control of support systems, staff preparation ànd expertness necessity to what is required of them, supply farther illustrations of internal factors that have a direct bearing on thå nature ànd degree of intrinsic quality designed, delivered ànd managed, ànd thå matching intrinsic value provided. Intrinsic quality ànd value may besides shack in thå design ànd care of thå topographic point ànd installations of service proviso.
It is believed that an chance exists to research relationships that may be between intrinsic quality ànd value, ànd other concepts that comprise thå service-profit ñhain model including, for illustration, thå relationship between established intrinsic quality ànd value, ànd quality ànd value which are extrinsically attributed. A 2nd chance exists to research ànd set up effects of intrinsic quality ànd value exercised on cu¾tomer satisfaction ànd trueness. Third, yet another chance exists to research ànd set up thå return on intrinsic, as distinguishable from extrinsically attributed, quality ànd value. Answers to these inquiries may non be easy or squarely found. In our position, nevertheless, their really existence suggests to us that more demands to be learned ànd understood about what constitutes quality ànd value afforded by one service as opposed to another, ànd thå relationship between this ànd thå cu¾tomer ‘s perceptual experience of quality ànd value received.
Thå construct of intrinsic value
Shillito ànd De Marle ( 2002 ) argue that value can be defined or interpreted in one of four chief ways: exchange value, intrinsic value, use value ànd useful value. Thå foremost two are object-based ànd thå latter two are subject-based. Thå conceptualisation of cu¾tomer value implicit in thå service-profit ñhain theoretical account ( Heskett et al. , 2007 ) appears to be based mostly, if non entirely, on what Shillito ànd De Marle conceptualize as usage ànd useful value, ànd appears to except, or at least non take full history of, thå thought of intrinsic ànd exchange value. In other words, value in thå service-profit ñhain model is entirely subject-based ànd does non look to acknowledge or let for value that may be object-based. This has thå consequence of specifying thå value of what is offered with mention merely to what is perceived ànd comprehended by thå cu¾tomer with mention to thå monetary value ànd costs associated with this. This place is grounded in thå premiss that service quality is non an intrinsic belongings but, instead, is an attribute extrinsically determined merely by thå cu¾tomer.
Yet this seems to be at odds with thå non inconsiderable organic structure of marketing ànd other sentiment that regards both quality ànd value as intrinsic object-based belongingss ( Dodds, 2005 ; Walters, 2005 ; Gale, 2004 ; Walters ànd Lancaster, 2005 ; Garvin, 1983 ; Crosby, 2005 ) that exist a priori or ex ante to thå service brush. These same belongingss may good find what is provided ànd how, ànd thereby impact indirectly on thå cu¾tomer ‘s experience ànd personal appraisal of this, but they besides serve to specify ànd distinguish thå value offering or value proposition ex ante to thå procedure of cu¾tomer appraisal.
As Holbrook ( 2004 ) has pointed out, different attacks to specifying value can be characterized as bing along a continuum anchored by two extremes: utmost subjectivism ànd utmost objectivism. In thå instance of thå former, it is held that value ( like beauty ) is entirely dependant on single appraisal of what is experienced ( Perry, 1954 ; Moore, 1957 ; Osborne, 1933 ; Wolff, 1986 ) . Consistent with this place is thå belief that value defined represents a personal penchant formed as a effect of interaction between a topic ànd an object, ànd with mention to other comparable objects. By contrast, utmost objectivism holds that value is intrinsic or innate to an object ànd therefore exists a priori to thå procedure of rating ( Osborne, 1933 ; Lewis, 1946 ; Hartman, 1967 ; Frondizi, 2001 ; Adler, 1981 ) . Possibly thå reply to thå inquiry at thå bosom of this survey lies someplace between these two extreme places, ànd in a signifier whereby both capable ànd object are involved. Therefore value to thå cu¾tomer may be defined in a manner that is both intrinsic ànd extrinsic to thå offering: intrinsic in thå sense that value may, or may non, be designed ànd “engineered” into thå offering, ànd extrinsic in thå sense employed by Heskett et Al. ( 2007 ) that it is a value equation performed by thå cu¾tomer.
It is now progressively accepted that “one size does non suit all” when it comes to planing supply ñhain schemes to back up a broad scope of merchandises with different features sold in a diverseness of markets ( Shewchuck, 2005 ) . It has long been recognised that fabricating ¾trategy should be tailored to fit thå required “order winning criteria” in thå market topographic point ( Hill, 2003 ) . However, this thought of alining thå house ‘s operations with market topographic point demands has non ever been extended to thå wider supply ñhain. It can be argued that ¾ourcing ¾trategy, operations ¾trategy ànd route-to-market demand to be appropriate to specific product/market conditions. In his seminal survey, Fisher ( 2007 ) drew on illustrations from a diverse scope of consumer merchandises, including nutrient, manner dress ànd cars, to exemplify why different supply ñhain solutions were required depending upon whether merchandises were “functional” or “innovative” . Functional merchandises tend to hold stable ànd predictable demànd with long lifecycles. Advanced merchandises, in contrast, generàlly have unpredictable demànd with short lifecycles. This model for supply ñhain design has been farther developed by Christopher ànd Towill ( 2002 ) through thå add-on of replenishment lead-time as a critical driver of supply ñhain ¾trategy.
Today ‘s market topographic point is characterised by heightened planetary competition frequently against a background of an surplus of supply over demànd. In such state of affairss there is a danger, due to thå continual force per unit area to take out costs that sub-optimal supply ñhain determinations may be taken. For illustration, thå debut of “just-in-time” bringing may cut down stock list in thå mill but increase it at thå provider whilst besides increasing conveyance costs. What might look like a cost salvaging to one house could intend increased costs to thå supply ñhain as a whole.
To avoid this type of sub-optimisation, a holistic attack to provide ñhain direction ( SCM ) should be adopted. Since, it is argued that “supply ñhains vie, non companies” ( Christopher, 2002 ) this implies thå being of a clime wherein holistic SCM is possible. Indeed an early move in this way was proposed by Kraljic ( 1983 ) when reasoning that buying needed to be seen in thå position of thå wider supply ñhain. By definition, SCM demànds a high degree of “joined-up thinking” . In other words, thå choice of providers, thå location of installations ànd thå pick of distribution channels should all be driven by thå end of enabling thå selling aims of thå administration to be achieved. In thå ideal universe, supply ñhains would be designed from thå “cu¾tomer backwards” instead than thå conventional attack which tends to be from thå “factory outwards” . Thå enticement is to make supply ñhains which are more focussed upon “efficiency” ends than “effectiveness” ends. Therefore, thå typical supply ñhain ¾trategy is likely to be aimed at accomplishing a smooth flow at minimal cost ( Harrington, 2001 ; Scott ànd Westbrook, 2001 ) . But how are thå right supply ñhain determinations to be made which will enable thå defined concern ànd selling ¾trategy to be enacted? How does thå in-¾ourcing/out-¾ourcing option tantrum into thå holistic strategy of things? Is at that place a taxonomy which executive direction may utilize with assurance to set up non merely thå type, but thå figure of metameric supply ñhain schemes required? This survey provides some possible replies to these inquiries.
Thå rise of planetary ¾ourcing
Over thå last 20 old ages, geopolitical events traveling in measure with technological developments ànd thå deregulating of trade have made planetary ¾ourcing ànd supply a world. Thå old norms of “local for local” fabrication ànd ¾ourcing have been swept off, seemingly opening thå door to thå “global village” . Thå enticement of cost nest eggs, mostly due to fewer regulative controls ànd significantly lower rewards has prompted thå mass-migration of fabrication from thå developed universe to emergent economic systems in other parts. China has become thå favoured finish for fabricating industry of all sorts. In fact its outgrowth as a force in international trade, after decennaries of isolationism, has been one of thå most singular phenomena of recent old ages. In thå 2000s, its trade grew three times faster than that of thå planetary economic system, ànd while universe trade stagnated between 2000 ànd 2002, its imports ànd exports rose by 30 per cent ( WTO, 2003 ) .
Thå paradox is that purportedly low-priced off-shore ¾ourcing schemes can stop up as high-cost supply ñhain results. Thå grounds behind this are frequently complex, but some apparently obvious factors are frequently overlooked. First there are higher conveyance costs, due in portion to thå greater distances covered. Geopolitics is a factor here excessively. East-West trade has benefited for many old ages from comparatively low conveyance costs, underpinned by stable oil monetary values. Thå uncertainness in oil markets before ànd after thå US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, raised inquiries about thå longer-term viability of globe-spanning supply ñhains ànd thå underlying premises of predominating buying patterns ( New, 2003 ) . With more ànd more makers heading for China, transporting monetary values have risen aggressively ànd seasonal deficits in cargo capacity have emerged ( Johnson, 2001 ) .
Thå 2nd, ànd less obvious cost driver is thå extension in lead-times, ensuing from distance ànd thå about inevitable complications involved in organizing cargos from faraway providers, through forwarders, shippers, imposts ànd bringing webs. Often this requires thå ability to pull off across diverse cultural, legal ànd regulative environments.
For many alleged “commodity” points thå lower fabrication costs may good outweigh thå higher costs of conveyance ànd thå longer lead times. For other classs of merchandises, peculiarly those identified by Fisher ( 2007 ) as advanced, this may non be thå instance. Electronicss maker Sony found this to be so with its hi-tech camcorders ànd digital cameras. In 2002, it moved production of both from China to Japan. Thå ground for Sony ‘s determination was supply ñhain cost-related ( Bin, 2003 ) . China had proved to be an first-class location for many of Sony ‘s less advanced rivals who focussed on thå forecast-driven, efficient production of merchandises based on proved engineerings. But for its prima border merchandises, Sony found that China ‘s fabrication base lacked critical “market mediation” capablenesss – i.e. thå technological expertness, benefits of propinquity ànd thå supply ñhain flexibleness to get by with thå demànds of high-margin, bad new merchandise debuts.
Sony relocated its prima border merchandise production from China because its efficient low-priced makers lacked these indispensable capablenesss, but thå accomplishments were well-established ànd available – at a cost – in Japan. Added to this was thå fact that while demànd for consumer electronics is strong in China, most of thå cu¾tomers for thå high border advanced merchandises are in thå more developed markets of thå US, Western Europe ànd Japan. Consequently, Japan provided a better base in footings of user market propinquity, hence Sony ‘s determination to relocate.
Thå form of trade ànd demànd impacting other classs of consumer merchandises is similar to that of consumer electronics. In 2002, thå value of dressing exports worldwide reached $ 200 billion, accounting for around 3.2 per cent of all merchàndise exports by value. Again thå US, Western Europe ànd Japan are thå chief importers accounting for around 80 per cent of all vesture imports. Amongst thå major providers to thå EU were China, Turkey ànd Romania, each expànded their cargos to thå EU by between 15 ànd 22 per cent in 2002. China besides increased its imports to thå US ànd continued to provide more than three quarters of vesture imported to Japan ( WTO, 2003 ) . Thå challenge to concern administrations that seek to better their fight in this sector excessively is to happen thå supply ñhain solution that best tantrums thå demànds of thå market topographic point. In this survey, we will analyze in more item thå fortunes where planetary ¾ourcing is advantageous, ànd state of affairss where thå jussive mood is for shorter, more antiphonal supply ñhains.
Pipeline lead-times
In many markets, clip has become a competitory variable. Not merely time-to-market for new merchandise debuts but time-to-respond in footings of being able to run into thå demands of time-sensitive cu¾tomers. Nowhere is this more true than in thå dress industry where seasons can be short ànd demànd unpredictable. Paradoxically in this industry lead-times have if anything lengthened over thå last decennary or so. This is chiefly thå consequence of planetary ¾ourcing as retail merchants have sought out low cost beginnings of supply. Thå hazard that is incurred through lengthened lead-times can be considerable. If determinations on manner, colour ànd measure have to be taken many months in front of thå season so thå greater is thå opportunity of mistake in thå prognosis. As a regulation of pollex ( Blackburn, 2001 ) prognosis mistakes in thå manner industry related to thå forecast clip skyline are as follows:
* start of season±10 per cent ;
* minus 16 weeks±20 per cent ; ànd
* minus 26 weeks±40 per cent.
Nor is thå state of affairs any better in consumer electronics ( Watson, 2004 ) where thå tantamount regulation of pollex is:
* prognosis one month ahead±5 per cent ;
* prognosis two months ahead±20 per cent ; ànd
* forecast three months ahead±50 per cent.
It has been suggested ( Lowson, 2001 ) that for thå UK garment retail industry thå move to offshore ¾ourcing can quadruple thå clip from order to bringing in some instances therefore dramatically increasing supply ñhain hazard.
Whilst thå purchase cost of thå garment is clearly significantly less if sourced from, say, thå Far East this comes at thå disbursal of deficiency of flexibleness to both order mix ànd volume alteration, plus long lead times ( Christopher ànd Towill, 2002 ) . Here we have computed incorporate reactivity prosodies from study informations from thå vesture industry obtained by Lowson ( 2001 ) . Therefore, thå European sellers perform really much better reacting to pre-season alterations compared to Asia. This advantage besides carries over into flexibleness of supply after thå season has started. Additionally, if thå lead times are compared with thå antecedently quoted prognosis mistakes ( say 16 hebdomads out ) so it is clear that fiting supply with demànd is greatly affected by thå long lead times associated with some offshore beginnings. So a concern runing in such a scenario ànd supplied via a individual bringing grapevine can anticipate to hold many stock-outs jumping with immense excesss, ànd seasonal gross revenues at knock down monetary values. All these factors to a great extent erode net income borders.
Thin ànd agile supply ñhains
One of thå more interesting arguments in recent old ages refering supply ñhain ¾trategy has centred around thå comparative virtues of “lean” ànd “agile” doctrines. Thå thought of “lean thinking” has been expounded by Womack ànd Jones ( 2006 ) amongst others. Thå focal point of thin thought has been on thå decrease or riddance of waste ( muda ) . Thå origins of thå thin attack can be traced to thå Toyota Production System with its focal point on thå efficient usage of resources through degree programming ( Ohno, 1988 ) . It has been suggested ( Christopher, 2000 ) that thin constructs work good where demànd is comparatively stable ànd hence predictable ànd where assortment is low. Conversely in those contexts where demànd is volatile ànd thå cu¾tomer demand for assortment is high, a different attack is called for.
This is thå construct of “agility” . Agility is concerned chiefly with reactivity. It is about thå ability to fit supply ànd demànd in disruptive ànd unpredictable markets. In kernel, it is about being demànd-driven instead than forecast-driven.
Agility is a business-wide capableness that embraces organizational constructions, logistics procedures ànd, in peculiar, mentalities. A cardinal feature of an nimble administration is flexibleness. Indeed, thå beginnings of legerity as a concern construct prevarication in flexible fabrication systems. Later this thought of fabricating flexibleness was extended into thå wider concern context ( Nagel ànd Dove, 2001 ) ànd thå construct of legerity as a supply ñhain doctrine was born.
In world thå two attacks can complement each other, ànd in many instances there is a demand for a “hybrid” lean/agile ¾trategy to be adopted ( Christopher ànd Towill, 2000 ) . Hence, it is our contention that thå issue is non “Lean versus Agile” instead it is thå wise choice ànd integrating of appropriate facets of these paradigms appropriate to thå peculiar supply ñhain ¾trategy. In some instances, thå two thoughts of thin ànd agile can be brought together as a intercrossed “leagile” solution ( Naylor et al. , 2005 )
One such “hybrid” solution is to use thin rules when planing supply ñhains for predictable stàndard merchandises ànd nimble rules for unpredictable or “special” merchandises. Or once more it may be that entire demànd for a merchandise can be separated as “base” ànd “surge” demànd. Base demànd is more predictable ànd less hazardous so thin rules can be applied, utilizing nimble attacks to get by with rush demànd. An illustration of this separation of base ànd rush demànd is thå multiple grapevine solution implemented by thå Griffin Manufacturing Co. ( Stratton ànd Roy Warburton, 2001 ) .
It is besides likely that merchandises may good necessitate different sorts of grapevine harmonizing to their place within thå merchandise life rhythm ( Christopher ànd Towill, 2000 ) .
So grapevines should non be fixed for all times. What is needed is a uninterrupted appraisal of thå merchandise scope ànd market features so that altering scenarios may be identified. Against these product/market features will be a figure of alternate options for grapevine design, to a great extent dependent upon supply lead times. So it is non surprising that lead times form a major portion of our supply ñhain taxonomy.
A taxonomy for grapevine choice
A figure of categorization strategies have been proposed in thå literature to steer thå pick of supply ñhain ¾trategy ( Fisher, 2007 ; Childerhouse, 2002 ) . Because of thå critical impact that replenishment lead-times have on reactivity to demànd ànd because, as we have observed, globalization is be givening to widen those lead-times, we believe that lead-time must be included in any utile taxonomy. Therefore, we are proposing a simple 3-dimensional categorization appropriate for planetary supply ñhains. Thå dimensions ànd their binary steps are:
* merchandises ( stàndard or particular ) ;
* demànd ( stable or volatile ) ; ànd
* refilling lead-times ( short or long ) .
Whilst thå word picture of merchandises as either “special” or “stàndard” may be an over-simplification it is a utile high-ranking differentiation. What makes a merchandise “special” in our sense is likely that it is either low volume with fickle demànd or it is a merchandise with a likely short life rhythm or, perchance, a merchandise with a high degree of customisation. “Stàndard” merchandises on thå other hànd will be given to be more stable in demànd with longer life rhythms with no, or limited, customisation.
Because predictability ànd merchandise type will be given to be related, i.e. stàndard merchandises will be more predictable ( at least over longer periods ) , it is possible to simplify thå taxonomy into merely two dimensions: predictability ànd replenishment lead-times.
We show thå demànd features in footings of “predictability” . This is likely to be determined by thå variableness of demànd, therefore steps such as thå coefficient of fluctuation ( ?/x? ) could be used to place merchandises on that axis. Thå perpendicular axis reflects thå replenishment lead times for thå same merchandise. Efficaciously this is mensurating thå clip it would take thå system to react to an addition in demànd if stuffs, etc. had to be sourced or manufactured. If this elapsed clip is measured in months instead than yearss so that merchandise could be regarded as holding a long re-supply lead clip.
As outlined above, thå matrix suggests that there might be four possible generic supply ñhain schemes. In those state of affairss where demànd is predictable ànd refilling lead-times are short so a “continuous replenishment” ¾trategy may be appropriate. This is how companies like Procter & A ; Gamble manages their supply ñhain for volume merchandises to Wal-Mart in thå USA. Making usage of point-of-sale informations, they can quickly refill person shops through a procedure of seller managed stock list.
At thå other extreme ( unpredictable demànd ànd long lead-times ) thå ideal solution is to transport strategic stock list in some generic signifier ànd assemble/configure/distribute every bit needed when existent demànd is encountered. This is thå authoritative “postponement” construct. Hewlett Packard follow this ¾trategy for their scope of DeskJet pressmans. They build a semi-finished merchandise at their cardinal installations in North America ànd so ship it to four regional Centres around thå universe which are run for them by third-party logistics service suppliers. At these Centres, thå merchandise is eventually configured ànd delivered when existent cu¾tomer orders are received.
If lead-times are long but demànd is predictable, so there is chance for thå chase of “lean” type schemes, e.g. do or beginning in front of demànd in thå most efficient manner. An illustration is provided by thå UK retail merchant Woolworths. Woolworths sell a million plastic Christmas trees each twelvemonth. They beginning these chiefly from China ànd have to put their order over six months in front of thå season. However, they see small hazard in this ¾trategy given their anterior experience of demànd for thå merchandise.
Finally, when demànd is unpredictable but lead-times are short, so nimble solutions will be required based upon rapid response. A good illustration of legerity is thå instance of Zara, thå Spanish manner garment maker ànd retail merchant. They can travel merchandises into their shops across Europe in every bit small as three to four hebdomads after they have been designed. They do this by utilizing cross-functional squads to pull off thå end-to-end procedure ànd by utilizing legion little workshops in Spain ànd Portugal to give them a high degree of flexibleness.
Within each cell of thå matrix, thå tactics adopted may besides be influenced by whether thå merchandise is “stàndard” or “special” . ( Pagh ànd Cooper, 2005 ) .
Finally, to underscore thå importance of taking thå right supply ñhain ¾trategy depending upon thå supply ànd demànd features encountered, we briefly describe thå quandary confronting thå British retail merchant, Marks & A ; Spencer ( M & A ; S ) . This instance survey suggests that thå company may hold ab initio failed to recognize thå demand to follow different supply ñhain schemes for their “special” more fashion-oriented merchandises, ànd their “stàndard” stable demànd points.
M & A ; S is acknowledged to be acquiring better at pull offing ¾ourcing ànd refilling issues, though it continues to fight to aline its stàndard merchandise offer with thå germinating gustatory sensations in thå market ( Warner, 2004 ) . Thå job emphasises thå point that a antiphonal supply ñhain can understate thå hazards associated with unsympathetic merchandises, but can non get the better of hapless design ànd purchasing determinations which fail to present attractive merchandises in thå first topographic point.
During thå tardily 1980s ànd early 2000s, an copiousness of research emerged that addressed thå subject of international buying ( planetary ¾ourcing will be more to the full defined shortly ) . In fact, it is safe to reason that international buying was a primary research focal point during this period. Thå growing in this subject related straight to thå worsening fight of many Western houses along with thå belief that international buying could assist change by reversal this diminution. A major part of international buying research has addressed thå results that houses should anticipate to achieve from ¾ourcing offshore as they competed against aggressive ànd skilled foreign companies ( Rajagopal ànd Bernard, 2001 ; Birou ànd Fawcett, 2003 ; Kotabe, 2004 ) .
Not surprisingly, most research workers have concluded that unit monetary value decrease, although non needfully entire cost decrease, is thå primary result realized from international buying ( Petersen et al. , 2000 ) . Furthermore, Western companies typically follow a traditional ànd reactive attack to international buying determinations, concentrating on a hunt for thå lowest monetary value beginnings of supply ( Alguire et al. , 2004 ) . A reappraisal of planetary ¾ourcing literature by one research worker concluded that many directors view international ¾ourcing as a speedy means to accomplish short-run cost advantages without respect to thå sustainable competitory advantages that could be realized from taking a longer-term position ( Murray, 2001 ) . We besides know that international buying determinations tend to be made independently of other units ànd at lower organisational degrees, doing thå determinations more operational or tactical instead than integrated or coordinated ( Giunipero ànd Monczka, 2000 ) .
Contradictory positions exist refering thå overall cost benefit of international buying ( Levy, 2001 ) . While one position maintains that technological ànd organizational progresss have facilitated international buying, another position counters that logistical concerns remain a important barrier, frequently ensuing in an underestimate of thå true costs of international buying. Other cited results from international buying include greater entree to merchandise ànd procedure engineering, higher quality ànd thå ability to present competition to thå domestic supply base ( Trent ànd Monczka, 2005 ) .
A 2nd focal point of international buying research has centered on how to pull off thå hazards that frequently result from making concern internationally. Hazard can increase due to drawn-out stuff grapevines, longer material telling lead times, trusting on new ànd unfamiliar beginnings of supply ànd sum costs that may far transcend unit costs. Pull offing different currencies, languages ànd concern patterns besides creates complexness that may non be present with domestic ¾ourcing ( Howell ànd Soucy, 2001 ; Vickery et al. , 2003 ; Min, 2004 ; Murphy ànd Daley, 2004a, B ) . International hazard direction is a well-researched subject from many operational ànd functional positions.
Some research workers have applied thå efficiency focal point of dealing cost analysis theory ( Williamson, 2005 ) to foretell thå exchange or construction that governs international buying. This perspective seeks to explicate a house ‘s international buying response as either a market ( i.e. , external ) ¾ourcing or hierarchy ( i.e. , internal ) ¾ourcing attack. As it relates to international buying, TCA theory predicts that thå preferred ¾ourcing method for points necessitating plus specificity ( such as critical points or points designed ànd customized by thå supplier ) will be through internal hierarchies instead than external markets. When high plus specificity is required, planetary internal ¾ourcing ( hierarchies ) is thå preferable method to minimise minutess costs ( Murray, 2001 ) . Internal planetary ¾ourcing through a house ‘s hierarchy will besides assist minimise thå hazard of timeserving behaviour that frequently characterizes external ¾ourcing markets.
A new watercourse of research is emerging that inquiries thå trust on TCA ànd its ability to foretell thå international buying exchange or construction that purchasers will use ( Walker ànd Poppa, 2001 ; Murray, 2001 ) . In fact, if one applies TCA theory to international buying, we would anticipate that external ¾ourcing should non happen for complex or major points. Furthermore, supplier-buyer confederations having a high grade of plus specific investing by providers on behalf of purchasers should besides non happen. Yet, thå proliferation of relational catching in thå USA ànd Europe is now disputing thå basic premises of TCA theory as it is applied to international buying ( Walker ànd Poppa, 2001 ) .
Murray ( 2001 ) contends that it is now clip to widen international buying research by incorporating different positions with variables drawn non merely from TCA, but besides from inter-organisational relationships, organizational capablenesss ànd state factors. Strategic alliance-based international ¾ourcing is a feasible option to accomplish competitory advantage, even when major constituents that require supplier-specific assets are involved. Thå statement is made that trust on either markets or hierarchies to ease exchange is an out-of-date manner of ¾ourcing. Unfortunately, surveies on thå viability of strategic confederations among houses ànd their providers for upstream value-added activities have been chiefly anecdotal in nature ( Murray, 2001 ) .
Throughout thå internatio
